The numbers of women in upper-level management positions in American organizations are disproportionately low in relation to both the numbers of women in the general population and the numbers of women among the employees of organizations (Konrad & Linnehan, 1995, pp. 409-439). Some analysts have suggested that a "glass ceiling" exists that blocks the promotion of women to upper-level management positions (Poole, Langan-Fox, & Omodei, 1993, pp. 39-54). The purpose of this study is to assess effects of the "glass ceiling" phenomenon in relation to the actual promotions of women to top-management positions in American organizations.
Background and Statement of the Problem
Powell and Butterfield (1994, pp. 68-86) investigated the "glass ceiling" phenomenon in relation to the actual promotions of women to top-management positions in American organizations. The major organizational problem to which this investigation was related is the issue of gender equity in human resource management.
The authors reviewed the progress made by women in American organizations during the 1970-1992 period. The literature, as reported in the article indicated that, while women had made significant progress in the context of being promoted to and hired for managerial positions in American organizations, comparatively little headway was made with respect to the promotion of women to top-management positions in American organizations. The literature reviewed in the article also explored the concept of the "glass ceiling," together with the support for using this phenomenon as an explanation for low numbers of women found at the level of top-management in American organizations. The authors indicated that one important area that was underrepresented in the literature was the decision-making processes in American organizations that are applied in making selections for promotion to top-management positions (Powell & Butterfield, 1994, pp. 68-86).