Coaching

This literature review will examine athletes' perceptions of coaches and how those perceptions are influenced by winning and losing and coaches' feedback patterns. The organization of the literature review focuses on the following topical areas: (1) athletes' perceptions of coaches; (2) coaches' feedback patterns; and (3) the effects of winning and losing on athletes' perceptions of coaches.

Smith, Smoll, and Hunt (1977) developed the Coaching Behavior Assessment System (CBAS) to measure and understand the social reinforcements provided by coaches to athletes and the effects of these reinforcements on the athletes and their performance. The general findings of research examining coaching behavior within the framework of the CBAS are that positive associations exist between outcomes and coaching behaviors characterized by feedback that includes mistake-contingent technical information, as opposed to general feedback. The research also found positive associations between outcomes and coaching behaviors that are less controlling and which include lower levels of punishment (Duda & Balaguer, 1999).

The goal-perspective theory of motivation holds athletes' perceptions of the sports environment in which they participate affects their motivation to perform (Ames, 1992). An important element of the sports environment consists of coaching behaviors (Smoll & Smith, 1989). There also are suggestions that an athletes' gender influence

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c performance, the accuracy of the athlete perceptions does not change the relationship. Nevertheless, athletes' perceptions of coaching behaviors correlate more closely with research-observer ratings of coaching behaviors than coaches' perceptions of their own behavior correlate with research-observer ratings of coaching behaviors (Chelladurai, 1996). O'Neill (2000) found no significant (p<.05) linear relationship between observed ratings of coaching behaviors (positive or negative) and athletes' perceptions of their own athletic competence. O'Neill (2000) applied the CBAS to rate coaching behaviors and the perceived Soccer Competence Scale (PSCS) to measure athletes' perceptions of their own athletic competence. O'Neill (2000) also measured differences in the relationship between observed ratings of coaching behaviors (positive or negative) and athletes' perceptions of their own athletic competence when controlled for athlete gender. Again, O'Neill (2000) found no significant (p<.05) linear relationship based on athlete gender. Stewart and Taylor (2000) found, however, that perceptions of negative coaching behaviors correlated with higher dropout rates among female athletes. The outcome is easily reversible by behavioral

Category: Psychology - C