Some years ago, influential writers on management and leadership suggested that major differences existed between the two concepts. John P. Kotter (1988) and Anthony Zaleznik (1977), among others, proclaimed that significant differences exist between leadership and management. Kotter (1988) also proclaimed that the demand for leadership in American corporations is different from what is has been in the past.
Kotter cited the difficult times being experienced by many American industries, such as increased competition, as a justification for a demand for a new type of corporate leadership. Conveniently overlooked, however, was that American always has experienced often wrenching change. Effective leadership has always been required by American industry. The demand is not a contemporary phenomenon.
Kotter also pointed to the fact that managers were being asked to develop new products, new distribution channels, new marketing methods, new manufacturing processes, new financing strategies, and much more. While all of these things were true and continue to be true, they did not then and do not now represent a departure from the history of American business enterprise wherein management and leadership have always gone hand-in-hand embodied in the same person. It is foolish to assume that a company chief executive officer (CEO) will state something such as the following: "This morning, I will manage development of a new strategy", and "this afternoon I will motivate the workforce through transformational leadership". In fact, each of these activities requires that the CEO manage and lead simultaneously.
Kotter (1988) also cited, as a justification for increased demands for leadership, the fact that contemporary managers must perform under conditions of uncertainty. One wonders where Mr. Kotter had been. Uncertainty is, and always has been, a characteristic of business enterprise in a market economy.
Kotter (1988) stat...