The purpose of this study is to assess effects of the "glass ceiling" phenomenon in relation to the actual promotions of women to top-management positions in American organizations.

It was found that evidence exists that discrimination against women in relation to promotion to upper-management does exist in American organizations. This finding led to a conclusion that discrimination against the promotion of women to upper-management positions in American organizations is pervasive.

It was found also that (1) overt company policies discriminating against the promotion of women to upper-management, (2) an ingrained and unconscious bias among company recruiters against the selection of women for induction into lower- and middle-management positions, and (3) an ingrained and unconscious bias among company selectors against the selection of women for promotion into lower- and middle-management positions were the most important of the factor involved in the discrimination against women in relation to the promotion to upper-management positions in American organizations. It is obvious that, (1) if women are not recruited into lower- and middle-management positions and (2) if women in the organization are not selected for promotion to lower- and middle-management positions, they (3) cannot be promote

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s most often perceived as a practice employed by one individual to overcome the resistance of another, as a means of attaining an organizational goal (Pfeffer, 1995, pp. 67-71). In the context of this perception, power differences are thought to create problems within organizations, because such power differences lead to the development of organizational conflicts (Tjosvold, 1985, pp. 281-293). Conflicts are typically thought to be essential, as a means of providing a setting where power many be employed (Lawrence & Lorsch, 1996, pp. 218-224). This assumption is, to a degree, paradoxical, in that power differences are also thought to be one cause of organizational conflict. Nevertheless, the typical train of thought is that the use of power is necessary for the attainment of organizational goals, and the presence of some degree of conflict is necessary in order for power to be employed effectively (Hardy, 1985, pp. 384-399). Power in organizations is then, according to this theory, used to overcome conflict, and cause other individuals to act in a constructive manner to bring about a desirable outcome. The above concept of organizational power is often referred to as overt power. The existence has been suggested of a second
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Approximate Word count = 8997
Approximate Pages = 36 (250 words per page)