Internment of Japanese Residents
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During World War II, the United States interned Japanese residents of the Western states in internment camps such as that at Manzanar in California. The reason was indicated in Executive Order 9066, signed in 1942 by President Roosevelt to give authority to the War Department to define military areas in the western states and to exclude anyone who might be seen as threatening the war effort (Houston and Houston xi-xii). Japanese living in the Western states were seen as potential subversives and were summarily removed to camps to prevent this. The camps operated until after the surrender of Japan, though the U.S. Supreme Court ruled at the end of 1944 that loyal citizens could not be held in detention camps against their will (Houston and Houston, 1973, xii). The United States was wrong to place any Japanese who had not committed any offense into these camps whether they were citizens or not, a fact later admitted by the U.S., which also eventually tried to pay some reparations to those who had been so incarcerated. The U.S. violated the civil rights of its Japanese citizens by doing this, as has been indicated in several court cases on the issue. At the time of the beginning of the war, there were some 127,000 persons having common ancestry with those who had launched the Pearl Harbor attack. Some 113,000 of these lived in the four states of California, Washington, Oregon, and Arizona, with 94,000 in California alone. They were a small minority representing less th
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e of the Japanese Americans forced to leave their homes, and Congress passed Public Law 77-503 making it a crime to violate a military order:
During this time, although the West Coast was declared a theater of war, martial law was never declared and habeas corpus was not suspended. The civil court system was in full operation throughout the war, and anyone charged with espionage or sabotage could have been properly tried. Yet the federal government proceeded with its plans for a mass evacuation and incarceration of American citizens and resident aliens, based solely on race, without any individual review (Hatamiya 15).
The issues raised by special laws directed at Japanese and Japanese-Americans during the war were litigated at the time, though the civil rights of these American citizens were not protected as they should have been. One instance of this is seen in the case of Kiyoshi Hirabayashi v. United States [320 U.S. 81 (1943) 63 S.Ct. 1375 320 U.S. 81]. The issue raised on appeal in this case was whether it was right to require that all persons of Japanese ancestry residing in certain areas be within their place of residence daily between the hours of 8:00 p. m. and 6:00 a.m. This had been required by the military c
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Some common words found in the essay are:
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Approximate Word count = 2100
Approximate Pages = 8 (250 words per page)
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