RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND 19TH CENTURY TRENDS
This research paper explains how the emergence and spread of nationalisms, the revolutions of mid-century; the exploitation of oil and Islamic populism resulted from and accelerated trends that have been ongoing since the nineteenth century.
Emergence and Spread of Nationalisms
Nationalism has taken various forms in the Middle East, Islamic nationalism, an appeal to the unity of all Muslims, pan-Arabism, the common concerns of Arabs and country or national collectiveness. Appeals to all three types of nationalism developed in the 19th century. After the Ottoman Empire captured Cairo in 1517, it succeeded to the claims of the former Arab Caliphate to speak for all Muslims. It was, therefore, natural that 19th century Ottoman government reformers would appeal to all subjects of the Empire to support it. In the 1860s, the Young Ottomans "called for the revitalization of the empire through the incorporation of selected European models . . . and insisted on the retention of the Islamic foundations of state and society" (Cleveland 82). Other 19th century reformers, such as Jamal al-Din-al-Afghani (1839-1897) and Mohammad Abduh (1849-1905), were more interested in preserving Islamic solidarity than adopting Western ways. The recent Islamic Revival which has spread throughout the Muslim world stresses pan-islamic traditions and solidarity.
Arab nationalism was the creation of 19th century thinkers such as the Syrian reformer Abd al-Rahman al-Kawaikih (1854-1902) and Rashid Rida in the 1890s. According to Lapidus, "Arab nationalism was born before World War I in the literary revival of the Arabic language, the revival of Arab identification with the glories of the Islamic past, and the anti-Turkish political ambitions of Arab intellectuals" (665). Pan-Arabism peaked under Gamal Nasser and has declined since his death.
Nationalism in one country took hold in Kemalist Turkey, in Pah...