Basing his general strain theory on previous strain theories but expanding them, Robert Agnew maintained that there are three varieties of strain theory. The first of these revolves around an individualÆs inability to achieve valued goals in a positive way, expressed by the difference between perceived aspirations and expectations and real world results. The second type of strain stems from the undermining or removal of positive achievements that have been formerly attained, often related to stressful or traumatic experiences. Agnew theorized that the third type of strain manifests itself from direct contact with negative or harmful influences, mainly those that we cannot control. Agnew focused on delinquency and criminality, but he does not assert these always arise from the stressors above. What he does maintain is that a tendency toward delinquency or criminality results from strain that happens in daily life. AgnewÆs theory demonstrates that delinquency is not a product of lower socio-economic status but also manifests itself in the middle- and upper-classes. Agnew developed two methods of measuring the strain in an individualÆs life. The first is a subjective approach that involves direct questioning of the individual, whereas the second approach is more objective and questions individuals about pre-determined sources of strain.
While the debate over deterrence as an effective means of combating crime continues among sociologists, Ronald Akers maintains that his social learning theory that encompasses deterrence is merely a special case of learning theory. Akers believes this because in his theory of differential reinforcement, learning encompasses the application of rewards and punishments. Based on theoretical models of behaviorism, AkersÆ maintains that as individuals we often tend to associate or interact with groups or other individuals who reward our behavior. As individuals, we carry out behavior, receive ...