Fragmentation of the American System

On the other hand, an observer might ask whether there is an inherent contradiction between the rhetoric of weakness and fragmentation and the reality of the United States as a superpower. The United States government recently carried out a war on another continent, halfway around the world. It did so in the face of widespread doubts abroad and even at home, and in the absence of an immediate, overwhelming provocation by the state against which it went to war. (Certainly the 9/11 attack was an overwhelming provocation, but not directly connected to Iraq.) This is not an action of a weak or fragmented political system. In the 1960s, when the national government chose to overturn long-standing racial law

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l regulatory authority, but businesses and ordinary citizens did not. If they encountered federal authority, it was by specific legislation, and under the direct purview of courts. The regulatory state was brought into being by the growing scope of economic activity, particularly the development of firms that did extensive and regular business across state lines, and therefore could not be effectively regulated by any one state. The railroads were the first group of firms to have this general characteristic, by the late 19th century, and the federal regulation of railroads was the prototype of administrative regulation and the regulatory state (Breyer, 2002). Railroads had enormous economic power over the regions they served. As with the Southern Pacific in California, they often exercised effective regional monopolies. Even the prosperous and influential upper-middle class -- farmers and local business people -- felt themselves to be effectively powerless in dealing with the railroads. The political pressure to constrain them thus became exceedingly strong (Breyer, 2002). Since direct legislative action and judicial review of every freight charge would be impossibly cumbersome, recourse was had instead to legislation tha
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Approximate Pages = 25 (250 words per page)