1999, p.632). Much of the work has focused on the effect of the father's addiction, but more research is appearing that deals with the mother's addiction. Mothers provide the childcare in most cases, and any adverse effects may be more direct because of the increased contact with the child. Some of the consequences are physical, starting in the womb. The addiction to cigarettes has been found to be a significant risk factor for low birth weight infants, a disadvantage which influences infant mortality, and long-term health outcomes of the surviving infants (Vogler & Kozlowski, 2002, p.241). Particularly in adolescents, of whom one in four is a current smoker, smoking and pregnancy remains a complex issue. Pregnancy compounds the ramifications smoking, as the association between smoking during pregnancy and multiple adverse outcomes, including maternal bleeding, low infant birth weight, infant death, and future delays in child development (Albrecht et al, 2000, p.709). Adolescents tend to engage in risk-taking behaviors despite known dangers, and particularly unwed mothers of low income tend to continue smoking, even when pregnant, causing risk to the fetus and infant.
Smoking during pregnancy has been found to be positively correlated with learning problems in the child, behavioral problems in social relationships, general developmental delay and even a greater chance of becoming involved in criminal behavior as an adult. Brennan and others found that prenatal maternal smoking was a factor in adult criminal outcomes (1999, p.215). Even the degree of smoking during the pregnancy related to the degree of criminal behavior in the males in adulthood. The relationship between the mother's smoking and the offspring's involvement in criminal behavior after grown was significant, even after adjustments were made for other demographic influences (Brennan et al, 1999, p.215). Although more study is required to investigate the nature...