opriate. Labor has become a more critical factor in the organization (Spirn & Benfer, 1982, p. 17). As technology has increased in sophistication, it now takes longer to train people, and more varied and specialized skills are needed. Thus, labor turnover costs more and recruitment has become more selective. In addition, the increasing complexity of markets, variability of products, increasing number of branch plants, and changes in technology all require more adaptive organizations (Spirn & Benfer, 1982, p. 18).
The other major school of thought is human relations theory. One of the major findings of the human relations theorists was the importance of groups in influencing the behavior of employees (Charns & Schaffer, 1983, p. 16). Out of this work came references to the informal system or informal organization, the network of social relations, and its norms, activities, and interactions (Charns & Schaffer, 1983, p. 16). The informal organization was shown to explain individual work behavior that seemed irrational from the perspective of the n
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