the rest of the modern era.
2. The Greek manner referred to the neo-Byzantine style for painting and mosaics (the other arts tended to follow the Gothic trend) which revived in the thirteenth century and replaced the remaining Romanesque elements in Italian painting. The style predominated to the end of the thirteenth century and its influence was widespread throughout Italy. A comparison of the Madonna Enthroned (c. 1280-90) by Cimabue (c. 1250-after 1300) and Giotto's c. 1310 version of the same subject demonstrates what was new in Giotto's approach. Both paintings feature the enthroned Madonna flanked by eight angels and accompanying saints. In Cimabue's version the four saints are half-figures who peer out from the curious space beneath the throne. Giotto's six saints flank the throne and their heads appear at the very back of the crowd of angels. Though there are numerous differences in approach the treatment of the human figure suffices to show the degree of difference. In the angular sharply linear Greek manner form was suggested by means of gold highlighting lines that reinforced the flow of the outlined drapery. The direction and concentration of the highlights suggested the presence of forms beneath the cloth. Modulations of tone were primarily used to suggest volume in the jawlines (and some smaller features) of the Virgin and angels. The difference in Giotto's approach to this problem is enormous. The breasts and knees of the Virgin and the shoulders of the first standing angels are indicated by highlights--but they are highlights intended to reproduce the fall of light on an object. They are built through the modulation of color rather than being suggested by a concentration of overlaid lines. Giotto's is a diffuse, unsourced light, it is true, but volume is created by painterly rather than linear means. The extent of this new confidence in building with paint is equally evident in the firmness with which ...