ry are made "after the fact." Another major criticism of Freudian theory was that it was developed from speculation based on observation of people suffering from neuroses and other problems of adjustment in clinical situations; it therefore might have little to say about healthy personality or life-styles that are not primarily defensive. There were many non-Freudian theories developed during the twenties. Most of those who followed kept Freud's basic picture of personality as a battleground in which unconscious primal urges fight it out with social values, but the theorists had a few changes in this picture as well. What these various theorists were attempting was a strong picture of the development of the personality, and several different ways of explaining such a development were offered (Zimbardo & Ruch, 1977, pp. 417-8).
One difference between Rogers and Freud concerned motivation as a way of thinking about the personality. The "actualization" of the self is seen by Rogers as a motivation for personality development through time. His theory has been strongly influenced by field theory, a concept that emerged from analogy with the physical sciences. This was based on a study of electromagnetic fields, and the model postulates fields of force that are in dynamic and constantly shifting equilibrium. Psychologists who apply this model see that psychological events, like physical events, represent a balance and interaction of many forces, and a change anywhere in the system is seen as affecting the whole system. Behavior is therefore shaped by a combination of forces making up the entire f
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