considers the activation of aggression in terms of how aggressive behaviors can be provoked by painful stimulation, by the expectation of reward or punishment, or by both. An individual may be aroused by painful or aversive events and might then respond aggressively, but whether the response is aggressive or not depends on the interpretation of the conditions of arousal and on the expectations the person has for the consequences of aggressive behavior. Pervin (1993) states that this view is distinct from the instinct view. The latter, as in psychodynamic theory, holds that there is an automatic buildup of aggressive energy. Social learning theory holds that frustration may or may not lead to aggression and that it is a matter of how the individual interprets the arousal, the alternative modes of response available, and the expectations the individual has of consequences for these various responses in this particular situation. Pervin writes,
Aggressive behavior may be stopped through threats of external punishment or through expectations of s
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