principles;
(7) Noting relationships to noting relationships among relationships;
(9) Offering opinions without reasons to offering opinions with reasons; and
(10) Making judgements without criteria to making judgements with criteria.
This section of the review defined critical thinking as the cognitive manipulation of information for problem-solving, conclusion formulation or decision-making. Several examples of how critical thinking differs from ordinary thinking were provided.
Instructional Strategies For Teaching Critical Thinking
There are several methods used by educators to teach critical thinking skills. Papalia and Olds (1992) have reviewed several of these methods. Based on their review, the authors offered the following frequently recommended instructional strategies:
(1) Use everyday activities to teach thinking skills and start as early as preschool. For example, asking toddlers open-ended questions about material read to them can often facilitate cognitive development.
(2) Have children compare or "match" new data with information they already know. Children, for example, can be asked to classify a country as either African or European, or as democratic or totalitarian.
(3) Provide children with questions that facilitate creative thinking. In this regard, Papalia and Olds (1992) state that children should be taught to ask four basic questions concerning anything they read or hear. These questions are: (a) Is it unusual? (b) Is it common knowledge? (3) If it is not common knowledge, what is the evidence in favor of it being true or in favor of it not being true? and (4) If there is evidence, is it reliable?
(4) Give children specific instructions in now to approach a problem, e.g. teach them to first identify what they know and do not know, to then design a resolution, to implement the designed plan, and then evaluate its effects.
(5) Use guided imagery to facilitate chi...