movements such as the women's rights movement. Susan Martin argues that the groundwork for women's inclusion in policing was laid during the "pre-policewomen" phase of "the policewomen's movement." During this pre-policewomen phase, which Martin extends from before the Civil War until the early twentieth century, reformers merely attempted to ensure that women and young girls held in custody in public institutions were supervised by women. Thus, from 1845 when New York City hired the first women prison matron until the end of the nineteenth century, an increasing number of municipalities and states employed women in this capacity.
In 1910 Alice S. Wells became the first policewoman with powers of arrest. Wells knew that she could be more effective in preventive and protective work with women and children if she had police powers, so she petitioned and gained appointment from the police department and city council of Los Angeles. Then, by 1915 at least twenty-five cities had appointed policewomen and by 1918, 220 town and cities were using policewomen and matrons. These first policewomen faced many barriers, including higher entrance requirements, admission quotas, and separate promotion lists. Policemen resisted their inclusion and questioned the physical ability of women, their emotional stability, and their ability to work under paramilitary discipline.
In these early stages of inclusion, the policewomen argued that the feminine attributes used to disqualify them from policing were, in fact, occupational assets. They defined their role as policewomen as an extension of their roles as mothers, guardians of children and protectors of the public morals. In addition, they were willing to perform some of the jobs that policemen disdained, such as the clerical work. Thus, they developed a specialized role that complemented rather than competed with the male officers' tasks.
In 1963 Congress passed the Equal...