1. Howard Gardner and Multiple Intelligences (MI): In challenging the concept of a single intelligence that can be encapsulated in an individual's intelligence quotient (IQ), Gardner proposed a broader definition of intelligence. According to Gardner (2005), intelligence refers to the physiological and psychological capacity to resolve problems and create products of value, as determined by at least one culture.
More specifically, Gardner (2005) utilized eight criteria that were derived from psychology, case studies of special populations such as prodigies, savants and individuals with learning disabilities, anthropology, cultural studies and biology to evaluate candidate intelligences:
Isolation of intelligences due to brain damage;
Presence of prodigies, savants and other unusual individuals who display extraordinary intelligences even though other intelligences are impaired;
Existence of specific core functions that can be categorized under one intelligence;
Existence of the developmental history of the intelligence of specific human beings such as experts in their field as to their acquisition and honing of their knowledge;
Presence of the evolutionary history of the forms of intelligence in human beings and animals;
Tests in experimental psychology that indicate the degree of independence and interdependence of the skills associated with intelligence;
Psychometric tests that match various tasks with specific types of intelligences; and
Existence of symbol systems such as language, math and maps, which can be used to reflect differences intelligences.
Using these criteria, Gardner (2005) identified nine different types of intelligences: "linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal,… naturalist… and existential" (p. 173).
2. Brain-Based Learning: Brain-based learning is derived from the application of the knowledge of the specific comp...