is an important element in the structure and behavior of any system" (Boulding, 1985, p. 11). These relationships determine how a system functions, and the functioning of a system, in turn, determines the classification of a system. These points underlie the rationale of Krackhardt and Hanson (1993, pp. 104 111) in their examination of the functioning of informal communications networks within organizations.
Scott (1987, p. 29) states that organizations are rational systems because they are designed to attain specified goals, wherein rational refers to a technical or functional process. Rational systems are largely defined by goal specificity and formalized organizational structure. Scott (1987, p. 51), however, views organizations as natural in character wherein the organization functions largely as a somewhat informal social system. According to Scott (1987, pp. 52 55), goal complexity and an informal structure characterize the natural organization. These concepts provide the basis for the role within organizations of the informal communications networks as conceived of and described by Krackhardt and Hanson (1993, pp. 104 111). The informal organization within a firm reflects the patterns of activity through which the work of a firm is actually accomplished (Krackhardt and Hanson, 1993, pp. 104 111; Galagan, 1992, pp. 26 30). Such informal organizations reflect a phenomenon in which natural hierarchies assert themselves whenever human beings organize to work (Krackhardt and Hanson, 1993, pp. 104 111; Ross, 1992, pp. 46 51).
In the context of social systems, "there is a growing expression of a desire for holism" (O'Neil, 1990, p. 4). In the context of social systems, holism refers to a to
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