ory experiments did not evaluate the impact of media violence on actual aggression. Since the measurement and definition of what constitutes "aggression" is not standardized or universalized, this situation opens doors for multiple interpretations, which undermined the findings of the research studies. The use of various proxies to substitute for indicators of aggression such as popping balloons, possessing aggressive attitudes or thoughts, or destroying characters in a video game failed to provide appropriate measures of aggression. For instance, some studies considered the child participants who kicked or hit Bobo dolls to be aggressive. However, Bobo dollsùinflatable plastic dolls that bounce back when they are hitùare toys that are designed to serve the purpose of being hit. Therefore, considering the children's behavior in this instance to be an indicator of aggression represented a gross misinterpretation of the reality (pp. 60-1).
In fact, research studies that examined the effects of media violence on
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