ers and the general public to improve the academic performance of the students. Typically, academic performance is measured by standardized testing (Beaulieu, Hartless, & Dyk, 2001). In fact, the effectiveness of educational reforms to enhance the quality of education is also assessed by the students' academic performance on standardized tests. These standardized tests have indicated that in spite of the massive educational reforms that have been implemented since the early 1980s, improvements in learning outcomes have not occurred (Orlich, 2000).
While the poor academic performance of the students has traditionally been attributed to the effects of poverty, school resources, family demographics and individual ability, another factor that has been linked to poor academic performance is test anxiety. According to Swanson and Howell (1996), test anxiety not only lowers test scores, but also leads to cultivation of self-defeating motivational, coping and task strategies. For example, students suffering from test anxiety exhibit a strong tendency to cheat on tests or commit reckless errors. They tend to engage in distracting and negative thoughts about themselves, which prevent them from concentrating on their tasks (Zatz & Chassin, 1985). As a result, these students have difficulties learning and excelling on standardized tests. This situation is exacerbated in the case of students with learning disabilities and other types of handicaps (Swanson & Howell, 1996). However, it is important to highlight the fact that any students, regardless of their level of intelligence or academic performance, can be adversely affected by test anxiety (Clovis, 1999). Most significantly, Clovis (1999) pointed out that these inappropriate strategies could trigger further increases in test anxiety and create a cycle of academic failure.
To address this phenomenon, researchers have proposed different theories of test anxiety to account for...