any other western country. As a result of the control over the Mediterranean by Muslim sea power, al-Andulus became an international trading power, while the Christian countries in the West sank into subsistence economies.
Al-Andulus was composed of many different ethnic and racial groups, who were further divided by religion. Groups in urban areas often rose up in revolt against tax and other government policies, and were usually brutally put down by those in power. The large Christian population found itself in a delicate position, for although the Muslim leadership practiced tolerance for religion, Christians had to be careful not to provoke Muslims over the subject of religion. Jews, who were also tolerated, had to be careful of both Muslims and Christians. The efforts of the Ummayad leadership to create a united Arab society were not entirely successful, as various regions often acted independently of C=rdoba. As will be seen, the most serious challenges to the emirate came between 852 and 912, after which Abd al-R
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