de-emphasized and individual workers became easily replaceable; consequently, economic compensation fell. In spite of this, the faith in success through hard work gained momentum, as new industrial entrepreneurs appeared in society. The success of Andrew Carnegie in rising from poor immigrant status to industrial giant could not be denied and a whole genre of popular literature grew up around the notion of the self-made man. Industrialization seemed to make this dream accessible; at the very least, the new industrial world placed little or no emphasis upon European notions of aristocracy.
The reality, however, differed substantially from the dream. Traditional prejudices were not erased by industrialization and certain minority groups in the United States were virtually locked out of the dream. The most prominent of these groups, of course, was that of the newly freed African Americans. The end of slavery did not lead to the end of racial theories of hierarchy or the placement of African Americans at the bottom of this hierarchy. Although a few individuals did become prominent as men of learning, there were no outstanding examples of economic success among African Americans and there seemed to be no expectations of such success. Instead, governments and communities relegated Blacks to a separate and subservient role in relationship to Whites, placing official and unofficial impediments in the way of economic success. Similar restrictions were placed on other racial minorities, such as Indians, Hispanics, and Orientals, although none of these other groups suffered the same degree of historical bias as Blacks.
African Americans were not voluntary immigrants to America; they did not come here seeking equality and opportunity. As former slaves or descendants of former slaves they occupied a unique position in the United States in which they were regarded with contempt and suspicion by Whites. Theories of racial inferiori...