obal or overall theories of organization. These are further differentiated by types of theories, including systems theories, economic theories, psychological theories, culture theories, and social change theories, among others. Finally, they are differentiated according to purpose, with most theories designed to identify "objective" reality in organizations and use that knowledge to improve functioning. However, recent developments in organization theory have focused more on critiquing the type of organizations that have developed and formulating alternatives to them (Gortner et al., 1989).
The modern study of bureaucracies begins with Max Weber, the German sociologist who defined the term itself. Weber presented a model of what he described as the ideal type of bureaucracy, which he identified from his studies of such institutions as the Prussian military and the Catholic Church. Rather than include the whole model here, it can be summarized as including the following characteristics (Weber, 1947):
1. Administration is under a central authority and includes individual officials who are appointed to serve.
2. These officials are organized hierarchically, have a clearly defined sphere of competence, and are selected based on technical qualifications.
3. They are remunerated by fixed salaries and rarely can they be terminated.
4. The office is the primary occupation of the incumbent and constitutes a career with a system of promotion, based on either seniority or achievement or both.
5. The official is subject to strict and systematic discipline and control and works entirely separate from ownership of the means of administration.
Since the time of Weber, bureaucracies and other types of organization have been seen as very different from each other. In general, bureaucracies have been stigmatized and seen for their negative characteristics more frequently than praised for their positive ones. As Weber noted, t...