serve may force the child to develop two systems of conduct without understanding why the two do not necessarily agree (Morgan, 1979, p. 164).
Further negative effects on a child's self-esteem include poverty and long periods of unstructured, unsupervised time alone in the home. Support systems may be weak for each person in the family, as the neighborhood and family ties of past generations do not carry as much strength in the present time (Broufenbrenner, 1986, p. 432). For students of adolescent age, the health risks of increased use of various addictive substances and the increased risks of teen pregnancies create challenges in self-esteem.
Developmental psychologists tell us that certain other needs must be meet before self-esteem even comes into the picture for a child. Abraham Maslow contended that the previous need levels of food, water, and warmth; need for safety in the environment; and the need for affection and belonging to a group must necessarily precede that of the esteem needs (Freiberg, 1987, p. 62). It follows, logically, that a classroom student who comes from an uncomfortable, unsafe, hostile environment will have great difficulty mustering up self-esteem. Such a child is most simply concerned with survival, both at home and at school.
Erik Erikson believed that the child goes through specific tasks in infancy, toddlerhood, and the pre-school years which teach him trust, autonomy, and initiative. If this does not happen, the child will suffer from mistrust, shame, and guilt. Such a child cannot cope with school tasks with any sense of self-esteem (Freiberg, 1987, p. 41).
Sociologists have pointed out that it has been only with the advent of social changes in the
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