research, policy, and practice are being blurred today. The author examines different paradigms that have been central in educational research. Knowledge utilization was prominent in the 1970s and 1980s and sought to establish how university-based research and development and its dissemination could be improved so that teachers would make more extensive use of it. The emphasis was on how to get teachers to heed outside knowledge and to incorporate it in their practice. A second paradigm emerged in the mid-1980s and centered on teachers' knowledge, seen as distinct from the earlier paradigm:
In traditional knowledge utilization theory, teachers' own knowledge was unhelpful to other educators as a way of understanding teaching because it was unsystematic. In the newly emergent study of teachers' knowledge, however, the grounding of that knowledge in the lives of individual teachers, and the particularities of time and place within which they worked, was regarded as a source of great richness, practicality, and strength (Hargreaves, 1996, 107).
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