Literature is reviewed in topical areas relevant to the application of the distance education concept. Generally, the focus is on the applicability of the issues to higher education.
A review of literature in the area of cognitive learning theory related to distance education found that, although no single or unified learning theory of distance education exists, four attributes of effective learning process theories are applicable to the distance education concept. These learning process theories are as follows: (1) active learning and knowledge construction; (2) cooperative learning; (3) problem-solving as an approach to learning; and (4) collaborative learning.
Active Learning and Knowledge Construction
Cognitive models of learning stress that learning is an active, constructive, and goal-oriented process (Shuell, 1986). Learners construct meaning from the material studied by processing it through existing mental structures and then retaining it in long-term memory where it remains available for further processing and possible reconstruction (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1991). Within this context, learning is best accomplished by engaging students in constructing knowledge through acquiring, generating, analyzing, manipulating, and structuring information.
Some learning theories emphasize learning's social genesis and suggest the view that it is a social process that occurs more effectively through interpersonal interactions in a cooperative (versus a competitive) context (Vygotsky, 1978). Research has found that the positive motivational and effective cognitive aspects are involved in group-oriented learning processes (Brown & Palincsar, 1989). Teamwork in learning extends the locus of meta-cognitive activity by providing triggers for cognitive dissatisfaction outside the individual. Team members can monitor individual thinking, opinions, and beliefs and provide feedback for clarification and change in the learning ...