o slow to enforce basic standards on vessels flying their flags (Williams, 2001).
Manning costs (the costs associated with staffing a particular vessel for a particular voyage) are among the most sensitive costs to ship owners and one of the most controllable (Haralambides, 1991). Innovations such as containers and computers (as well as the advent of engines in the late nineteenth century) have reduced the number of people required to operate a vessel, even when the vessel is of considerable size. Traditionally, the minimum requirement for sea duty is to be physically fit (an "able-bodied" seaman) and willing to be absent from home for extended periods of time. Over the centuries, ship owners have taken advantage of the fact that labor was plentiful and have often paid less-than-minimum wages to their crews.
The work environment aboard ship is different from the work environment for most land-based jobs. Shifts (or watches) are required 24-hours a day, and duties can vary based simply on the type of weather that the ship encounters. Ships are also confined environments, so personality conflicts can
...