and psychological violence directed against either themselves or other family members by the alcoholic parent or parents (Kokin & Walker, 1989, p. 129). The psychological and emotional effects on these children often include "repressed memories, . . . guilt, . . . feelings of inadequacy and failure, with an overwhelming belief that whatever" is wrong in the family is largely their fault, and that responsibility for correction of the problem also largely is theirs (Kokin & Walker, 1989, p. 124). Child abuse associated with alcohol abuse by perpetrators tends to extend over shorter time periods for Hispanic children·2.16 years than for African-American children·2.23 years and Anglo children·3.99 years (Mennen, 1994, pp. 119-120).
Several characteristics tend to be both prevalent and more significant child victims of abuse than in other children (Kokin & Walker, 1989, p. 129). These characteristics are (1) a sense of helplessness and powerlessness, (2) a feeling of humiliation, (3) a feeling of dependence on the abusing per
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