extreme, and with the social model (or complete irrationality) at the other extreme (Kimberly & Rottman, 1987, pp. 569-619). This description implies that only irrational decision-making accords human values precedence over economic values. In the organizational environments of the 1990s, leaders must find some middle ground between these extremes, for it is evident that neither set of values can be ignored.
The practice of decision-making in American organizations is far from standard, and ranges from the outmoded directive behavior to a full embracing of the concept of participative decision-making. The most effective decision-making behavior for organizations will include participation by organizational subordinates in the process, while, at the same time, preserving the ultimate responsibility and authority of the leader. In most organizations, it is a rare event for a single individual to complete an entire decision making process without functioning at least part of the time as a member of a group (Sisk, 1996,
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