d.
Much literature exists praising the HR management efficiencies of the Japanese companies and their style of operation for maximum effectiveness. Dunning argued (1995) that the paradigm was one which should be followed by companies wishing to remain competitive in the global economy since it answers the needs of both consumers and employees by focusing on the upgrading of core competencies of firms, and on the way these firms are organized as a means of improving their global competitive advantages (Dunning, 1995).
Of course, the Japanese have hesitated to adopt many of the Western ideas of training, preferring to maintain autocratic learning. This confirms Lillirank's comments (1995), that most of the basic ideas of Japanese training were originally developed in the United States; only when the Japanese demonstrated that they can be translated into competitive advantages, "did a demand for these methods start to materialize, pointing out the benefits of flow-based plant layouts, trust-based supplier networks, or industrial keiretsu, inventory management with Just-in-Time (JIT), and employee involvement in continuous improvement through Quality Control Circles" (Lillirank, 1995, 972).
A second body of literature exists that tries to come to grips with the success of the Japanese style of management training. Ozawa (1996) suggests that Japan uses a neo-mercantilistic formula to build competitive export industries such as autos and electronics. But, he argues, the consequence has been the rapid transplantation abroad of those once-fostered industrial activities. In other words, the concept of the keiretsu has been exported as well as Japanese products. Banerji and Sambharya (1996), explained the underpinnings of the Japanese philosophy of training quite well, noting that the kereitsu is a key feature of the industrial structure in Japan.
Needs Assessment, ISD, Implementation and T & D Evaluation
Japan Knowledge...