Regarding the second question, Callahan maintains the patient's right to determine what level of medical care is appropriate. Callahan contends that elderly patients do not have the right to "vigorous life-extending treatment" when there is little hope of recovery. Patients must take into account their moral obligations to family, friends, and community. In case of future incapacitation, patients can make their decisions known through power-of-attorney agreements or living wills. All too often, however, medical professionals are afraid to honor a patient's wishes, which lessens the effectiveness of these directives.
In answer to the third question, Callahan believes that doctors tend to use technology excessively because of the difficulty of making a prognosis that a patient is dying. It is only possible to accurately assess a patient's chances of survival after he or she has undergone a complete diagnosis. In the absence of such a diagnosis, doctors "treat with vigor" using technolog
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