INVESTIGATING THE "GLASS CEILING" Introduction T

Each of the articles is reviewed separately. The elements of the review framework are research problem identification, the organizational problem to which the investigation is related, literature review, a description and explanation of the data examined, study findings, and research conclusions drawn.

Powell and Butterfield (1994, pp. 68-86) investigated the "glass ceiling" phenomenon in relation to the actual promotions of women to top-management positions in American organizations. The major organizational problem to which this investigation was related is the issue of gender equity in human resource management.

The authors reviewed the progress made by women in American organizations during the 1970-1992 period. The literature, as reported in the article indicated that, while women had made significant progress in the context of being promoted to and hired for managerial positions in American organ

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eported that relatively recently comprehensive theories of managerial advancement have been developed for women. Within this context, the authors mused that such theories also might be useful in relation to men as no comprehensive theories of advancedment have been developed for men. The authors also reviewed literature relevant to the various explanations for the low rate of advancement of women to the level of top-management in organizations. The authors addressed categorized these explanations as organizational influences, interpersonal influences, and individual influences. The authors noted further that broad social conditions affect each of these three sets of influences. The new data examined by the researchers were collected from 513 women and 501 men who were managers in Australian organizations. Public sector organizations employed 58.5 percent of the members of the research sample with the remaining members of the research sample being employed by private sector organizations. None of the members of the research sample were employed by organizations with fewer than 100 personnel. The researchers found that age exerted the strongest influence on the advancement of women to top-management positions. The resea
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