be symptomatic of "any occurrence taking on an unconscious meaning that seriously challenges or undermines" the sense of self, resulting in a "traumatic shattering of self" (p. 7).
The occurrence of PTSD is widespread. Among Vietnam veterans, estimates of PTSD-related symptoms range from 20% to 60% (Friedman, 1981, p. 931). A study of 1,172 Vietnam combat veterans by the Veterans' Administration indicated that 35% reported mental or emotional problems, 36% reported frightening, death-related memories, 25% reported family conflict, and 30% reported drug and alcohol abuse (p. 932). Female military veterans who served in Vietnam also experience persistent readjustment problems based on the trauma of war. Wolfe (1993) cites a dissertation by Schnaier in which 89 female veterans were interviewed, 50% of whom experienced symptoms suggestive of PTSD (p. 1). PTSD is common among child victims of sexual abuse. McLeer et al. (1991) studied 92 sexually-abused children and found that almost 44% met DSM-III-R criteria (p. 875). Likewise, Kiser et al. (1991) finds that a majority (55%) of the clinical population of children and adolescents subjected to physical and/or sexual abuse develop PTSD symptoms. The occurrence of PTSD symptoms in victims of natural disasters is not as clear; however, Steinglass and Gerrity (1990) found substantial gender differences (women experiencing more symptoms than men) as have other researchers (p. 1761).
PTSD can result from a single traumatic event or from a series of such experiences. Terr (1994) differentiates these causes as Type I (single-event) and Type II (multiple-event) trauma (p. 11). Single events might be an unexpected car crash on the freeway, a work-related injury, or an accident in the home. Single events also might be related to an isolated act of physical violence such as a rape, robbery, or kidnapping. Natural disasters also fall into the single-event category and include earth...