allen foes.
The outbreak of World War I was accompanied by great outbursts of patriotic fervor in all the capitals of the European warring powers, whose leaders promised early victory. After the initial thrust of the German army across Belgium and toward Paris slowed, the war in the West turned into a protracted four year slugging match and bloody stalemate. After the Bolshevik revolution in Russia in November 1917, an exhausted Russia deserted the Allied cause, making it appear for awhile that Germany might yet prevail. However, after the German western offensive of early 1918 stalled, the superior weight of Allied resources, reinforced by American aid and manpower, proved decisive. In late October, 1918 a new German government headed by Prince Max of Baden sued for peace and on November 9, 1918, the German Emperor, William II, Kaiser Wilhelm, abdicated. The Allied victory had been a near run thing. Taylor said "the German army had been beaten in the field. It was in retreat. But it had not been routed or destroyed" (21).
The war exacted a fearful toll, including more than 7 million men killed in action, over 16 million wounded and nearly 2.3 million civilian deaths (Chickering 195). American military deaths were 48,000, but Germany lost over 2 million soldiers, France 1.4 million and Britain about 745,000 (195). The war in the West was fought mainly in Belgium and northern France, resulting in half a million civilian deaths in France alone, widespread physical destruction and economic disruption. The total costs of the war were estimated at more than $600 billion (Mee 260). According to Kennan, among the populations of all the warring powers, "as hostilities ran their course, hatreds congealed, one's own propaganda came to be believed, moderate people were shouted down and brought into disrepute, and war aims hardened and became more extreme all around" (62-63).
The spirit of vengeance and the belief that the enemy must be...