policies, rules, and regulations. A common goal of many organizations is productivity improvement. Division of labor occurs whenever different people have to perform separate tasks to achieve a common goal (Mintzberg, n.g., pp. 1-23). Finally, the hierarchy of authority--also known, as the chain of command--makes sure that the "right people do the right things at the right time" (Kreitner & Kinicki, 1992, pp. 633-657). This hierarchy is maintained according to the unity of command principle. The rule minimizes conflicting orders and inefficiency by requiring that each employee report to only one manager. The four characteristics of an organization determine its overall structure and, ultimately, its effectiveness.
There are different mechanisms by which organizations coordinate their work. For one, mutual adjustment involves coordination by informal communication. It essentially makes coordination the workers' responsibility. Second, direct supervision coordinates different tasks by having one person take responsibility for the work of others. This supervisor issues instructions and then monitors compliance. A third way of controlling work processes is to standardize outputs. This involves specifying the results of the work (e.g., the dimensions of the product). Last, coordination can be achieved through the standardization of skills and knowledge. This generally requires that the different kinds of training needed to perform the work be specified (Mintzberg, n.g., pp. 1-23).
Other key concepts of general systems theory include the following: (1) holism, synergism, organicism, and Gestalt; (2) open and closed systems; (3) the input-transformation-output model; (4) system boundaries; (5) negative entropy; (6) dynamic equilibrium; (7) feedback; (8) internal elaboration; (9) multiple goal-seeking; and (10) the equifinality of open systems. Holism, synergism, organicism, and Gestalt all refer to the different, in...