at blacks are often considered America's only ethnic group. Society rarely identifies whites by their ethnic backgrounds, but never hesitates to use this frame of reference for blacks. Consequently, the media views blacks as having divided loyalties. Some blacks agree with this assessment. Reed (1989) gives the example of Toni Morrison: "When Toni Morrison told an international P.E.N. audience . . . that she never felt part of America, as a black person, her remark was greeted by groans, and she was deemed ungrateful by Newsweek . . . " (p. 226).
Ethnicity makes mainstream society uncomfortable partly because it serves as a reminder to "white Americans" of their own ethnic roots. Being white in America means being privileged. For this reason, most racial and ethnic minorities eagerly shed the "shackles of ethnicity," a condition which they regard almost like a disease (Reed, 1989, p. 228).
In contrast, the aboriginal peoples are noted for their adherence to their ethnic traditions. Toelken (1991) gives an example of this in his description of Native American ritual and celebratory dances. The powwow is a means of intensification of Indian customs. For instance, the powwow dances are scheduled according to "Indian time." The dances usually commence long before the advertised time because Indians' conception of time is relative. The festivities begin once all the participants have gathered: "It would be difficult to time any of this by the clock, for these actions are responsive to the internal dynamics of the event far more than to the arbitrary measurement of elapsed time" (Toelken, 1991, p. 142). Although Native Americans allow non-Indian visitors to attend the dances for a fee, the standards of judging are based on Indian traditions, not the response of the crowd.
Powwow dances serve to strengthen Native American traditions and ethnicity. The dancers are judged by their knowledge and application of aut...