ed and interdependent; individual effort does not lead to anything of consequence. Economic and social life are integrated and this results in close relationships between individuals. Symbols and rituals may communicate underlying values (Ouchi, 1981b; Ouchi, 1982b).
The Z Organization, Japanese management, American style consists of lifetime work relationships; these relationships are not formally stated, but stem from the nature of the business which usually requires a lot of learning-by-doing. Employee skills tend to be company specific. These tasks develop through a slow process of evaluation and promotion. Decision-making may be collective but ultimate responsibility resides in one individual. The maintenance of individual responsibility is critical to Western society. Type Z managers are clear that they need to agree on a central set of objectives to achieve close cooperation (Ouchi, 1982).
The holistic orientation of Type Z companies is similar to the Japanese form. Type Z com
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