ons involved, and ending in a decisive conclusion, and lesser degrees of armed conflict between nations. Thus Elizabethan England could be at peace, with full diplomatic relations, with Spain in European affairs, which English ships with authority from (and often financial participation by) the Queen engaged in raids against Spanish ships and settlements "beyond the line" in the Western Hemisphere.4 The sea long remained a particularly unpeaceful region; the first undeclared American war with an established foreign power was the naval "quasi war" with France in 1798.5
An early draft of the Constitution was stricter than the final version, and reserved to Congress the right to "make war," not simply to "declare" war.6 The language was changed because it was felt to be overly restrictive, denying the President the power on his own to repel sudden attacks. However, the framers clearly leaned towards giving Congress the ultimate war power. Alexander Hamilton, a notable believer in a strong Executive, was clear in the v
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