es (Murray, 1976; Perlmutter, 1987). Perlmutter (1987) postulated that delinquent behavior was a result of learning-disabled adolescents' attempts to compensate for academic failure and frustration.
Social skills defects have also been proposed as possible causes of delinquency (Long & Sherer, 1984; Hains & Hains, 1987). Long and Sherer (1984) suggest that delinquent behavior may result from situation-specific social skills deficits; i.e. juvenile delinquents behave maladaptively to attain their goals simply because they lack the requisite skills to act appropriately.
In studies comparing juvenile offenders and non-offenders, other characteristics have been described, but the directional or causal links are not clear. Offenders differ in self-esteem (lower than non-offenders), locus of control (more often external), levels of empathy (lower), and cognitive processes (more immature development), yet these variables are not necessarily "causes" of delinquency (Long & Sherer, 1984; Lee & Prentice, 1988).
Many sociological theories have been developed to explain juvenile delinquency, theories based not on the individual per se, but on society or the environment. The major theories will be presented briefly. Strain theory, a major theory of delinquency, is based on the idea that delinquency results when individuals are unable to achieve their goals through legitimate channels and therefore seek goal attainment through illegitimate channels or act out of frustration and anger (Cohen, 1955; Cloward & Ohlin, 1960). Cohen (1955) focuses on the goal of "middle class status." He contends that juvenile delinquents have the same desires that middle-class juveniles do, but, because of a lack of resources or opportunities, real or perceived, they are unable to achieve them in the conventional manner and seek unconventional methods. Cloward & Ohlin (1960) do not use the concept of "middle class status" but emphasize the juveniles' g...