f reference groups on the interpersonal behaviours of women in both civilian and military organizational environments.
A Background Review of the Thoughts on Interpersonal Behaviour by Women as Expressed by Leading Female and Other Writers Theorists
Marion Underwood (2003b) studies the causes of social aggression among children in the nine through 14 years old age group. In these studies, social aggression includes behaviours such as exclusion, friendship manipulation, malicious gossip, and non-verbal efforts that focus on alienation and manipulation. Underwood (2003a) feels that social aggression is especially harmful to girls. The researchers attributed social aggression in large part to "rough and tumble" intersexual play, which boys tended to view in terms of dominance, while girls tended to view such behaviour as playful (Galen & Underwood, 1997). Some 20 years earlier, a study by Feshbach (1978) concluded that young girls more so than young boys would behave in a pro-social manner.
Ann Gilligan (1982) is one among several theorists who contend that women conceptualize and analyse issues, events, and actions differently from men. This difference in perspective leads women into interpersonal behaviours that tend to be more strongly oriented toward collaboration than to competition. She also states that women tend to define their personal identities in terms of the men with whom they affiliate. Gilligan frequently is criticized by other female writers on the grounds that her conclusions offer validation to sexual stereotypes. Approximately 10 years ago, Mednick and Thomas (1993) continued to hold that most women were still socialized to seen life goals through marriage as opposed to seeking such goals through work. Chodorow (1999), in The Power of Feelings, contends that gender socialization is unique to each individual woman. A quarter century earlier, Bardwick (1971) held that women generally avoided conflict and...