S. President Richard Nixon, Chinese leaders began to seriously explore international cultural and economic exchanges.
However, China remained an alien society in Western eyes, an alienation perpetuated by the Chinese themselves: "The theory of China's unique characteristics has been popular both in China and abroad for a long time . . . [and] has contributed greatly to both China's self-isolation and the isolation imposed upon it" (Lizhi, 1990, p. xlii). Foreign policy formally accepted China's uniqueness. The Shanghai CommuniquT of 1972 recognized, "There are essential differences between China and the United States in their social systems and foreign policies" (Freeman, 1996, Fall, p. 4). This acknowledgement allowed both sides to proceed in building mutually beneficial policies that nevertheless allowed for the existence of dramatic cultural contrasts.
However, the opening of China permitted international investigators to begin to examine Chinese policies and practices regarding human rights. Internal dissent continued to be a dangerous business, and observers noted the government's prompt actions in silencing those who spoke out against conditions in their country. China continued to argue that its unique culture gave it leeway to adhere to different standards than in other parts of the world. Officials contended that actions which appeared abusive to outsiders were often simply business as usual according to Chinese custom.
Human rights activists countered with the assertion that cultural uniqueness cannot justify inhuman actions. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, prepared in the years immediately following World War II and signed by most of the world's major powers, is an attempt to provide universal standards for human rights which cross cultural boundaries. Measured by this yardstick, China continues to come up woefully short. Abusive Chinese policies include coerced abortions and sterilization...