ger, pp. 3-4).
Numerous instruments are used to measure the FFM. Adjective-based instruments include Goldberg's sets, 50 transparent bipolar adjectives sets and 100 unipolar adjective markers. Wiggins and Tranell developed the Interpersonal Adjective Scales Revised-Big Five. The Hogan Personality-Inventory is a six-factor variant. Q-sort methods by McCrae, Costa, and Busch and Robbins, John, and Caspi are available. The NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI) was designed to operationalize the hierarchical model of the FFM; the NEO-PI-R became available in 1992. Observer ratings are also used to measure FFM dimensions (Form R of NEO-PR-R) (Costa and Widiger, p. 4).
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III-R) is a categorical approach. Advantages of this approach include ease of conceptualization and communication, familiarity, and consistency. Disadvantages are that ambiguity occurs regarding presence versus absence in some cases; even if the diagnosis is straightforward, dimensional mo
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