ood citizenship can be taught through sports in today's society: "with the decline of sportsmanship and fair play and the increased emphasis upon aggressive, win-at-all behaviors in sports, some question the value of youth sport participation" (Ramsey and Rank, 1997, p. 30).
Sports encourage a wide range of negative behaviors in children. Participants are taught that winning is everything. Success in competitive games is based on athletic skill level, which places children with low skill levels at a distinct disadvantage. Noncooperative behaviors are condoned, as children vie to become "star" athletes, thereby enhancing their esteem in the eyes of society: "Children in the age range of approximately five years of age through adolescence are going through a stage in their cognitive development in which they utilize social comparison processes almost exclusively in order to judge their own capabilities and self-worth" (Roberts, 1992, p. 180).
Sports force children to compete against each other, and emphasis is placed on the outcome of the game or activity. One team or individual wins, another loses. Winning enhances self-esteem, losing has the exact opposite effect. In sports, children are encouraged to delight in the failure of others while simultaneously emphasizing their own successes. Children become so conditioned to these responses that they are no longer able to engage in play for the joy of it; everything boils down to winning and losing.
The objectives of children's play differ from the objectives of participation in sports. As Roberts (1992) notes, "It must also be remembered that competing is learned behavior . . . children are 10 or 12 years of age before they develop a mature understanding of the competitive process and are able to accurately determine their competence" (p. 180). Competition is learned through the parental and school socialization processes. Children sense their parents' reactions t...