Napoleon's Egyptian Campaigns Much of the confusion about the ef

Much of the confusion about the effect of Napoleon's Egyptian campaigns stem from their purpose (which was confusing) and their effect on France (which was very little). Another problem was using this invasion to assess France's policy towards the Ottoman Empire. Because Napoleon had invaded a territory of Ottoman, other European nations believed France had exchanged its policy of working with that empire for partitioning it. In fact, the "Directors" (French leaders) believed the invasion was as much in Ottoman interests as France's.

However, Napoleon's invasion was as influential on the "Eastern Question" as the treaty of Knchnk Kaynjarja of 1774. In that treaty, signed in Bulgaria, the RussoTurkish War of 17691774 was ended, along with undisputed Ottoman control of the Black Sea. It also provided a diplomatic basis for future Russian intervention, or interference, in Ottoman affairs. The treaty did this by guaranteeing Russia the right to represent Orthodox Christians in Moldavia and Walachia. Along with economic privileges and use of waterways, Russia then interpreted this treaty to include representation of all Christians and so entitle Russia to greater involvement in Ottoman affairs and concurrent right to dictate Ottoman actions.

Likewise, France's invasion of the Ottoman Empire brought further Euroean involvement in their affairs. A French invasion of Egypt posed a threat to England in two ways: being able to command the overland routes t

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be inferior to European military. Efforts to modernize the army, the Empire's priority, required more efficient government. When a program or service was no longer funded indirectly, the government ultimately had to provide the service itself. While other reforms were planned, all plans were made secondary to the military. Since the military never achieved the goal set for it, the other reforms remained mostly as plans only. One of the lasting effects was the reorganized government, with provincial grouping (vilayets) under a governor (vali), districts (sanjaks or livas), qadas, urban and rural areas, and all officials appointed from Istanbul. The "millets" were the districts of the Ottoman Empire. These were organized with one person appointed to the top position of authority. This person was the one whom the empire's government dealt with (Yapp 6). This chief politician soon was a religious person, and by 1914 the Ottoman government recognized 17 millets as under foreign protection for religious reasons. The government desired a secular state because the rulers believed that the many religions that characterized the empire were ultimately divisive. They feared religion would become an excuse for rebellion and weaken

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