. They supposedly could become invisible and fly, sometimes with the aid of a broom or special ointments. Witches allegedly foretold the future; animated inanimate objects, revived the dead, and conjured up other spirits; and transformed themselves and others into animals, particularly cats and wolves (Briggs, 1996, pp. 97-115).
Witches in Europe in medieval times and later were organized into covens of 12 members, mainly but not exclusively females, and a leader, usually a male. The leader was considered the vicar of the devil and was regarded by many of his simpler worshipers as the devil himself. Traditionally, he is represented as dressed all in black or in the guise of a goat, stag, or other horned animal. The coven supposedly assembled once or twice a week in what was generally a local gathering. At these meetings, the witches allegedly performed acts of devil worship, reported on their activities, and made plans for the coming week. Larger regional meetings, called Sabbats, were said to draw hundreds, sometimes thousands, of joyous revelers, including witches and their uninitiated followers. The most celebrated witch's meeting place in ancient and medieval Europe was Brocken, the highest peak in the Harz Mountains of Germany, the scene of the Sabbat so vividly described in Goethe's Faust. The two most important Sabbats were held on the night of April 30 (Roodmas or Walpurgis Night) and the night of October 31 (Halloween). Sabbats were celebrated also on the nights of July 31 (Lammas) and February 1 (Candlemas) and probably on other nights. Sabbats included initiation, which were followed by general worship, which blended into dancing, which became increasingly wild and indecent, possibly leading to a sexual orgy (Briggs, 1996, pp. 1-14).
From what is known about Sabbats and other historical practices of European witches, many contemporary scholars have come to the conclusion that witchcraft was the survival of aspec...