ses and intentions. The concept of a mind or "psyche" is ingrained in psychology, and the psychologist obtains this material through written tests and verbal comments. However, Freud's psychology has been challenged by both behavioral and biological psychology in the twentieth century (Jeffery, 1994, p. 151).
Nonetheless, psychologists rely on Freud's theories to argue, for example, that people break the law because they need to act out emotional conflicts, they feel a desire to be punished, or they are subjected to uncontrollable sexual impulses (Hartjen, 1974, p.45). Generally, psychologists attribute criminal behavior to faulty "superego" development. In Freudian terms, the superego is a subconscious force that acts to limit our hedonistic urges (Freud, 1949, p.17). It is generally formed during childhood. Thus, psychologists believe crime results from inadequate family life or some other aspect of the person's psychological development that was not adequately formed (Hartjen, 1974, p.45).
Clayton Hartjen argues that while it is undoubtedly true that some criminals do suffer from mental disturbances, so do some non-offenders (1974, p.45). He notes that studies designed to test psychological claims have not been successful. He also maintains that the problem of assessing the validity of psychological claims as explanations of criminality lies in determining the extent to which the emotional disturbance is, in fact, causally related to the criminal behavior (Hartjen, 1974, p.46).
Research studies have suggested that economic and social factors, including unemployment, influence the crime rate. Thus, the provision of cushions against the disruptive impact of unemployment may be a significant defense against crime (Currie, 1985, p.130). However, since the late 1970s, many critics have argued that job programs for offenders do not work. In particular, conservatives have used the contradictory evaluations of work programs for offe...