This chapter explores seven theories of criminology related to the social environment and subculture. The differential association theory developed by U.S. criminologist Edwin Sutherland proposes that criminal behavior is learned from othersùparticularly from other criminalsùby internalizing and accepting definitions favorable to law violations. According to this theory, the more a person interacts with criminals and delinquents, the more he is likely to become a criminal or delinquent himself. Research seems to bear this out, with family and peer variables showing that such behaviors run in families. This theory expects attitudinal variables to show that criminals believe their crimes are more acceptable than for people in general, but research does not seem to be borne out in studies except in terms of illegal drug use. Race/ethnicity and social status are significant in that some groups have attitudes more favorable to law violations. Gender and age are not considered extremely relevant to differential association theory. One study showed results that suggest possible treatment; prosocial boys were allowed to encourage delinquent boys to adopt law-abiding behavior, and this resulted in a significant improvement in their behavior.
Social learning theory is a product of B.F. SkinnerÆs behaviorism, which showed that schedules of reinforcement could be used to manipulate behavior in rats and pigeons. This theory takes into account the fact that animals and humans are more likely to learn when they are motivated with a reward. Albert Bandura believed that human social behavior developed through observation or modeling, rejecting the notion that humans learned by rewards and punishments as rats and pigeons did. Akers argued that positive definitions identify social behavior that people feel is acceptable, and neutralizing behavior is the type more favorable to law violations. Gerald Patterson argued that parents, teacher...