during an actual seizure.
Morphological factors, or features of the bodyÆs appearance, also have a bearing on criminality. Of the three body types, endomorph (rounded or fat), mesomorph (muscular), and ectomorph (thin and nonmuscular), ectomorphs have a higher tendency to be criminal than other types. Even physical attractiveness is a criminal correlate, since unattractive people exhibit more criminal behavior than attractive ones.
Physiological correlates are one of the least visible indicators of crime. Criminals tend to have a slower resting heart rate and pulse, and their heart rates rise more slowly in response to mild exercise than those of people in general. Skin conductivity (galvanic skin response) follows unusual patterns in people with criminal or antisocial behavior. Biochemical correlates such as hormonesùtestosterone or cortisol, for exampleùcan affect behavior, including criminal behavior. In males, testosterone levels rise dramatically following puberty, increasing menÆs tendency toward aggression. In both men and women, high levels of testosterone are associated with criminality. Cortisol is one of the stress hormones and exhibits increased levels following stress. In criminals, cortisol levels are uncommonly low following stress.
Neurotransmitters are biochemicals in the body that assist electrochemical signals in being conducted across gaps called ôsynapses.ö Each of these neurotransmitters tends to act upon specific regions of the brain. Dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrin, for example, affect the catecholamine system, and serotonin affects the serotonin system. Serotonergic functioning refers to the amount of serotonin present in the synaptic gap, measured by the metabolite 5-HIAA. Studies of this phenomenon show that serotonergic activity in the brains of criminals is characteristically below the typical level and is linked with aggression. Catecholamines have a connection to th...