Different cultures often use language in substantially different ways, making cross-cultural communication problematic. In the article "Cultural Intelligence: Understanding Behaviors that Serve People's Goals," by Richard Brislin, Reginald Worthley, and Brent Macnab, the authors make a cogent point about cross-cultural communication between Japanese and American businessmen. They note that among the Japanese, the communication that takes place in business meetings is predicated upon the exchange of business cards and that there is an important reason for this ritual-"there are differing language levels in Japan that are dependent on peoples' status" (Brislin, Worthley, & Macnab, 2006, p. 43). In fact, the authors assert, "If Japanese counterparts cannot ascertain people's status from their business cards, they cannot speak to them without fear of making a mistake" (Brislin, Worthley, & Macnab, 2006, p. 43). Thus, a close scrutiny of the business cards exchanged at a meeting must reveal who each individual in the opposite party is and what title or position they hold.
Depending upon an individual's status, the Japanese speak in a particular tone of voice, using certain vocabulary, and with their body in a certain position; the authors point out that "There is a level for people who are equal in status, people who are lower in status, and people who are higher in status" (Brislin, Worthley, & Macnab, 2006, p. 43). The authors contrast this cultural phenomenon with that of American businessmen, who speak in the same tone of voice and with the same vocabulary whether they are talking to their secretaries or the CEO of a company. Moreover, the business cards must be prepared and presented in a certain way, with English on one side and Japanese on the other and handed to the Japanese with both hands instead of just one, as is the custom in the United States.
It is widely acknowledged that perceptions, emoti...