granted the inferiority of white women, African-Americans as well as members of other racial and ethnic minorities. Such attitudes permeated society and were widely held even by those labeled as inferior. The lower status of women was sanctioned by longstanding cultural and religious standards. Ethnic imbalances in all phases of life were not only tolerated but supported by social and governmental institutions. It has taken generations for society to recognize the injustice of such a situation and to take positive (affirmative) action that assures all American citizens equal treatment under the law.
Even after the unfairness of discriminating against persons because of their sex or the ethnic background was legally recognized, testing became an instrument for barring women and minority groups from full participation in society. When President Lyndon Johnson decreed that discrimination in employment was illegal (United States Code Congressional..., 1965, pp. 4416-4422), all forms of discrimination d
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