ttended a juku at some time" (White, 1987, p. 77). Because jukus are not regulated by the government, they vary from small, family-run operations to corporate giants. Some jukus focus on enhancing school performance but many gear their teaching to preparation for high school and college entrance examinations. According to White (1987), it is the juku that ameliorates the Japanese cultural contradiction between competition and cooperation: "Their proliferation is a natural response to the pressures created by discrepancies between the goals of individual families, the egalitarian ideology, and the structuring of the formal school system" (p. 77).
The primary and lower secondary (Grades 7-9) schools in Japan are generally characterized by the absence of tracking. The Japanese believe that almost any child can master the educational curriculum. All that is needed is hard work, diligence, and perseverance: "Parents and teachers encourage regular study habits from the 1st grade on" (OERI, 1987, p. 3). With the exception of special classes for children with
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